The next and final Enlightenment tradition to be examined in the class is that of John Rawls, who, according to Professor Shapiro, was a hugely important figure not only in contemporary political philosophy, but also in the field of philosophy as a whole. The class is introduced to some of the principal features of Rawls's theory of justice, such as the original position and the veil of ignorance, two of Rawls's most important philosophical innovations. Rawls channels Kant's categorical imperative because he asks individuals who would hypothetically be making choices about the structure of society to consider what would be desirable regardless of who they turned out to be--high IQ or low IQ, male or female, black or white, rich or poor. Rawls does not want to consider utility or welfare, but rather something more concrete: resources. And for him, these resources are liberties, opportunities, income and wealth, and the social bases of self-respect. The first of these leads to Rawls's first principle of justice, which states, "Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all." Professor Shapiro animates this principle by asking, "Should there be an established religion?" For Rawls, the approach to answering this question is from the standpoint of the most adversely affected person.

Reading assignment:
Rawls, A Theory of Justice
- Chapter 1, sections 1-4, 8
- Chapter 2, sections 11-17

1. Information and Housekeeping
2. Introductory Lecture
3. Natural Law Roots of the Social Contract Tradition
4. Origins of Classical Utilitarianism
5. Classical Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice
6. From Classical to Neoclassical Utilitarianism
7. The Neoclassical Synthesis of Rights and Utility
8. Limits of the Neoclassical Synthesis
9. The Marxian Challenge
10. Marx's Theory of Capitalism
11. Marxian Exploitation and Distributive Justice
12. The Marxian Failure and Legacy
13. Appropriating Locke Today
14. Rights as Side Constraints and the Minimal State
15. Compensation versus Redistribution
16. The Rawlsian Social Contract
17. Distributive Justice and the Welfare State
18. The "Political-not-Metaphysical" Legacy
19. The Burkean Outlook
20. Contemporary Communitarianism (I)
21. Contemporary Communitarianism (II)
22. Democracy and Majority Rule (I)
23. Democracy and Majority Rule (II)
24. Democratic Justice: Theory
25. Democratic Justice: Applications

This course explores main answers to the question, "When do governments deserve our allegiance?" It starts with a survey of major political theories of the Enlightenment—Utilitarianism, Marxism, and the social contract tradition—through classical formulations, historical context, and contemporary debates relating to politics today. It then turns to the rejection of Enlightenment political thinking. Lastly, it deals with the nature of, and justifications for, democratic politics, and their relations to Enlightenment and Anti-Enlightenment political thinking. Practical implications of these arguments are covered through discussion of a variety of concrete problems.

Course Structure:
This Yale College course, taught on campus twice per week for 50 minutes, was recorded for Open Yale Courses in Spring 2010.